THE KHAN KHANAN AND HIS PAINTERS, ILLUMINATORS AND CALLIGRAPHERS- M. MAHFUZ UL HAQ .

WE know so little about the life-history of the artists of the period of Akbar and Jahangir—nay, of the Mughal artists in general—that even a scrap of paper, which may throw light on the biography of these artists, is of value to a student of Mughal art. Writers on Mughal painting have ordinarily made use of only such material as has been available to them in printed Texts and ‘Translations, but, it must be admitted, that there is still a mass of material in Persian manuscripts which, if examined and published, will no doubt throw much light on the subject.

There is another point which also deserves consideration. It has been supposed so long that all the Mughal artists were attached te the court of the Emperor only, but the fact is that some of the Mughal grandees also had well-equipped studios in which talented artists embellished and illuminated for them manuscripts of rare grace and beauty. Among such grandees was the Khan Khanan (Abdur Rahim) the great general of Akbar and a son of the famous Bayram Khan (the Regent), who had gathered round him a galaxy of some of the most talented artists of the age. In our historical works the Khan Khanan appears in the role of a great commander and a capable administrator but, in fact, he was equally great as a poet, a scholar and a connoisseur.

He was a generous patron of savants, poets, painters and penmen. Almost all the great poets of Akbar were formerly attached to his court. In fact, they served their term of apprenticeship under him, ‘before joining the service of the Emperor.

The Khan Khanan’s library has been described as a ‘Wonder of the Age’. It was a meeting-place of the best scholars and men of letters ot the age. His biographer, ‘Abdul Baqi Nahawandi, who has written the excellent Ma’athir-i-Rahimi* (or the history of ‘Abdur Rahim, Khan Khanan), tells us that the Khan Khanan’s library was visited by nearly a hundred scholars daily, who met there *to have their doubts settled, their difficulties solved and their frontier of knowledge enlarged and extended’.

The library was in the charge of a Superintendent, who was himself a scholar, His function was two-fold : first, the custody of the manuscripts and, secondly, the supervision of the work of the calligraphists, painters, gilders and book- binders, who were engaged in copying and illuminating the manuscripts. The Ma’athir gives us the names of five persons who at some time or other, acted as librarians of the Khan Khanan, namely, Shaikh ‘Abdus Salim , Mawlaina Baqi’ , Mir Baqi of Transoxiana , Mawlana Ibrahim and Shujaa , besides Mawlana Kami, Ghani Hamadani and a few others who were also employed there, Besides ancient manuscripts, the library contained a very large collection of autograph copies of the works of contemporary poets. But, alas, none of those autograph copies is known to exist today; and, of the older manuscripts, only a dozen have been traced so far.’ All these copies are the finest specimens of the penman’s and the illuminator’s art and some even contain excellent miniatures in the finest Persian and Mughal styles. The interest which the Khan Khanan took in the manuscripts of his library is proved by the fact that all the extant copies of his library bear his autograph notes also. I may mention here, in passing, that a beautiful copy of the Tadhkirat-ul Awliya, or the ‘Memoirs of the Saints’, which formerly belonged to the library of the Khan Khanan and bears his autograph note on the fly-leaf, has recently been added to my humble collection of Persian manuscripts.

I have already said that the Khan Khanan was a very good connoisseur. An instance only will prove my point. The author of Kalimat-ush-Shu‘ara narrates the following story of a painter who came to the Khan Khindan, with a picture and received a reward of five thousand rupees from him. He says :—“ When the Khan Khanan was going to the court of the Emperor, a painter came to him and handed over to him one of his pictures. The scene depicted therein was of a lady who was taking her bath and that a maid-servant was rubbing the sole of her foot with a pumice-stone. The Khan Khanan looked at the picture for a moment and then, putting it in his palanquin went away to pay homage to the Emperor. When he returned, the painter re-appeared. He ordered that a sum of rupees five thousand be paid to him. ‘The painter said, My picture is hardly worth more than five rupees, but there is one artistic skill which I have employed in it. If your Honour has marked that, then I shall be glad to accept your reward, for then I shall have the satisfaction that your Honour has really appreciated my work’, The Khan Khanan said, ‘ Your skill lies in that you have expressed in the lady’s face the feeling which is produced by the rubbing of the sole with a pumice-stone’. The painter was much delighted and he went round the palki of that connoisseur.”

This much for painting. The interest which the Khan Khanan took in calligraphy may be proved from the following two instances. When ‘Abdul Baqi Nahawandi first came to his court and presented to him a ‘ Poem’, which was transcribed by the celebrated calligraphist, Mir Imad of Qazwin, the Khan Khanan was so pleased with him that he at once appointed him to a high post and later commissioned him to compile the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi.

Again, when Khwaja Mohammad of Gilan sent to the Khan Khanan a Persian Poem, which was copied by the well-known calligraphist Amir Mu‘izzuddin Muhammad of Kashan, he sent him a lac of rupees.

The author of the Ma’a hir-ul-Umara has truly re-marked that ‘the Khan Khanan’s court, which was the centre of the ‘ masters’ of all branches of art and letters, was reminiscent of the days of Sultan Husain Mirza and Mir Ali Shir of Herat. Like these two great bibliophiles —probably the greatest that Persia has ever known—the Khan Khanan also had (as appears from the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi), a regular staff of painters, gilders, illuminators and calligraphists. The Ma’athir gives us the names of five painters, two gilders and illuminators and three calligraphists only but, besides them, there must have been many more artists of lesser fame who were also engaged in illustrating and illuminating the manuscripts of the Khan Khanan.

Among the painters, we get the names of Miyan Nadim, Bahbood, Mushfiq, Madhu and Ibrahim; and among the gilders and illuminators we find Mulla Muhammed Amin and Mulla Muhammad Husain; and among the calligraphists we have Mulla Abdur Rahim, Ambarin Qalam, Mulla Muhammad Mu’min, Mawliné Muhammad Darwish and Mulla Muhammad Baqir. The only specimen of the art of some of the above-named painters is in a copy of the Khamsa, or the ‘Five Poems’, of Amir Khusraw of Delhi, which is preserved in the Staasbibliothec, Berlin (MS. Orient. Fol. 1278). Dr. Goetz, who has examined the manuscript, says, “According to an extensive note inserted in 1617 by the Khan Khanan ‘Abdur Rahim Khan (one of the highest grandees of the Emperor Akbar and son of his guardian Bairam Khan) it was purchased by the latter in Gujarat, and is said to have been master- piece jointly executed by the calligrapher Sultan ‘Ali and the most renowned of Muslim painters, Bahzad. Its miniatures which are framed by charming illuminated borders, are, nevertheless, actually signed by three less known, painters of Akbar’s reign, Qasim, Nadim and Mish Kish.

Originally it had no illustrations; subsequently many miniatures. Of very different origin were pasted over the text and were adapted to its size by various disfiguring additions. Among these, however, is a quantity of bad miniatures, but nevertheless some very fine paintings of the Akbari School.

Of the above three painters, Nadim and Mushfiq (and not Mish Kish, as stated by Dr. Goetz) are mentioned in the Ma’athir ; while the third, Qasim is not referred to in the book. ‘There is, however, one Muhammad Qasim whose illustrations can be seen in the British Museum copy of the Shahnama. He may be identical with the aforesaid Qasim who illustrated the Khamsa for the Khan Khanan but, unless further evidence is forthcoming, no final decision can be made. It is also difficult to identify the Madhu of the Ma’athir with the Madhu mentioned by Abul Fazl in the ‘A’in, as has been done by Blochmann,!

Martin and Brown.The last named author mentions three Madhus ‘of Akbar’s period: Madhu Khan azaad, Madhu Kalan (or senior) and Madhu Khurd (or Junior). He has identified the first, ie., Madhu Khanazaad, with the Madhu of the Ma’athir. But I fear he has overlooked the fact that Madhu Khan azaad’s pictures are to be found in the British Museum copy of the Darabnama, which, as he himself says, was completed about 1575, while the Madhu of the Ma’athir was still working in the library of the Khan Khanan in 1617 A.D. Did he really resign his service under the Emperor and join that of the Khan Khanan? Probably not, for had this been a fact the author of the Ma’athir must have referred to this in his book. In view of these considerations, I am inclined to keep his identity separate from that of the Madhu of the A’in and also from the two other Madhus whose names appear in the “ Akbar Manuscripts ”’.

Let me here refer to the Khan Khanan’s interest in ‘paper’. It is on record that he was keenly interested in ‘Aks’ (or tracing) paper and that Mulla Muhammad Amin and Mulla Muhammad Husain invented ‘Aks paper of seven colours’. ‘Abri’ paper was also invented under his patronage.

Now, I append an English translation of the notices of painters, gilders and calligraphists, which are given in the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi. I should like to make it clear, however, that my translation is not always literal as, in that case, some of the passages would have hardly been intelligible to the English reader. ’

1. Miyan Nadim – He was one of the Khasa Khail and a slave of this Commander-in-Chief. He was the brother of Miyan Fahim‘ whose account we have already given. The service which the latter rendered to India, in general, and to the Khan Khanan, in particular, is too well-known to need repetition here, He (i.e., Nadim) was so skilled in drawing and painting that, since the days of Mani and Bahzad, none has been born who can rival him. He acquired this proficiency in the library, and in the service, of this Commander-in-Chief. In fact, the exalted, Khan Khanan himself instructed and raised him to this high level. Thus, under the training of the Khan Khanan, he became peerless master in his art. He breathed his last in the service of his master. He led a comfortable and care-free life, as he was handsomely paid by the Khan Khanan.

2. Bahbood – He was a Khasa Khail of the Khan Khanan. Formerly he was a slave of Mirza Baqir, the illustrious son of Qiblat-ul-Kutub, Mir ‘Ali, the famous calligraphist. The aforesaid Mirza (Baqir) was skilled in calligraphy and wrote such beautiful Nastaliq, alter the style of his father, that his writings find a place in the Albums of the connoisseurs, and excite much admiration. When he came to India and joined the service of the Khan Khanan, he handed over Bahbood, who is unrivalled in painting and Nastaliq calligraphy, to the Khan Khanan. He is still alive and passes his time in the Library. He is engaged in adorning, embellishing and copying the manuscripts of the Khan Khanan. In fact, peerless in these two arts, in his age. The writer has seen specimens of his calligraphy and paintings and is of opinion that undoubtedly he is a‘ Marvel of the Age ’.

3. Mawlani Mushfiq -He is also one of the Khasa Khails. He is an unrivaled painter of his age. He has passed his life, from an early age down to the present day, in the library (of the Khan Khanan). Here, he acquired proficiency and obtained this exalted position under the care and in the training of this Chief. He has no rival or equal (in his art), He leads a life of comfort, under the patronage of the Khan Khanan. He works in the library.

4. Madhu– He is a Hindu painter. In portraiture, drawing, painting and arabesque-design (tarrahi) he is the Mani and the Bahzad of his age. He has illustrated most of the manuscripts of this court; he has drawn several court-scenes and painted excellent miniatures. He is employed in the library and holds, besides an allowance, Jagirs also. The writer has met him and has also seen his pictures in the presence of this Commander-in-Chief. Verily, he is peerless (in his art).

5. Mawhina Ibrahim, Naqqash – He was unrivaled in calligraphy, gilding, book-binding and was skilled as engraver on precious stones. He was much skilled in various arts, and was proficient and unsurpassed in other branches as well. He met the Commander-in-Chief at Ahmad Nagar, in the Deccan, and entered his service there; He held the post of a librarian for a number of years. It may be said, without the least exaggeration, that each one of his excellence would have become an embellishment and an adornment for the people of the world, At times, he composed verses also. He had a good aptitude for poetry and was unrivaled among the exponents of this art in India. For reasons which are not known to the writer, he was deprived of the honor of the service of the Khan Khanan. He traveled, during the remaining period of his life, throughout India, in search of a master and patron like the Khan Khanan, but he did not get any. He was always sorry, and regretted his mistake. At last the messenger of Death rolled the carpet of his existence (i.e., he died)

Gilders.and Calligraphers.

1. Mulla Muhammad Amin, the jadwal- maker. He is one of the famous gilders of Khurasan, For a long time, he was employed in the library attached to the shrine of Imam Raza, the eighth Imam, at Mashhad, and was engaged in embellishing the manuscripts of that exalted shrine, When the Uzbeqs became masters of Khurasan and they plundered, pillaged and destroyed many of its districts, and more particularly Mashhad, the aforesaid Mawlana came, with his sons and grandsons, to India. He took shelter in the library of the Commander- in-Chief and here he removed from his face—-through the kindness of the Khan Khanan—the dust of the woes and the sufferings of Khurasan. He was appointed on a salary of Rs. 4,000 and his sons also were appointed on big’ salaries. He was unrivaled in his age in gilding, jadwal-work and ‘Aks (i.e., tracing) work. He has adorned and embellished most of the manuscripts of this library. As the Khan Khanan was particularly interested in ‘Aks’ paper, he invented ‘Aks’ paper of seven colors. He made such improvements in ‘Aks’ that none of the ancient or modern masters can even approach him. He obtained so many favors and rewards from his master, during his long service at his court, that it is hardly possible to enumerate them all, He had a fine taste for poetry. He is the inventor of Abri paper also.

2, Mulla Muhammad Husain of Herat, was the brother of Mulla Muhammad Amin. He was an excellent sahhaf, or book-binder. In ‘Aks work, he even excelled Mulla Muhammad Amin. He has been serving in this library since thirty-five years. No one has surpassed’ him in Dirham burd’ Aks work of seven colors, he has no peer in this art, Besides his salary, he has been given jagir also. Today, he is the pivot of the library.

1. Mulla ‘Abdur Rahim, Ambarin Qalam of Heraat. He is one of the celebrated calligraphists of the age, and writes a very fine Nastaliq hand. In his early age when he came from Khurasan to India, he attached himself to the court of this Commander-in-Chief. He made such improvement in calligraphy, under the able guidance of his master, that the fame of his penmanship spread all over India. Most of the manuscripts in the Sarkaar (of the Khan Khanan) were in the handwriting of this ‘Wonder of the Age’, He, remained in the service of the Khan Khanan for a number of years and was always engaged in acquiring proficiency (in his art). The Khan Khanan, then, presented him before the Vicegerent of God (i.e., Emperor Akbar) and had him appointed in the Royal Court. At present no one excels him, except Mulla Muhammad Husain of Kashmir. He received many favours and rewards from the Khan Khanan, during his service under him, and to-day also he prays for his (i.e.,the Khan Khanan’s) good fortune and prosperity.

2. Mulla Muhammad Mu’min . He is the brother of Mulla Muhammad Husain of Heraat. These two brothers have not, since their arrival in India, gone to any other court or library, except that of this Commander-in-Chief. He wrote very beautiful Nastaliq. He was the master of his age in Jali (bold) calligraphy. There are many bulky volumes in this library which have been transcribed by him. He received an allowance befitting his status. So long as he was alive, he has engaged in the service of the Commander-in-Chief and left it only when he passed away from this transitory world.

3. Mawlina Darwish of Turbat. He was the illustrious son of Mulla ‘Abdus Samad of Turbat. He is known as Darwish “Abdus Samad. He wrote a beautiful Taliq hand. In fact, he had acquired such proficiency in his art that connoisseurs placed the specimens of his calligraphy in their Albums, mistaking them to be the work of the celebrated Mulla Darwish. The Mulla worked for a long time as a scribe in the Darul Insha of the Eighth Imam at Mashhad. But the desire of kissing the threshold of this Commander-in-Chief, brought him to India. He acted as a Munshi in this Court, for a number of years. He combined in him the qualities of a good penman with that of a man of refined taste. So long as was in the service of the Khan Khanan, he was always honoured with rewards, but, when he became old and infirm, he sought the permission of the Commander-in- Chief and retired to Kashan—the abode of the Faithful. But he left his son, Khwaja Muhammad Qasim, at the Court, He was employed on the same work.

The writer met the Mawlana at Kashan, where he was living in comfort, with the money which he had revived from this Ka‘ba of generosity (i.e., the Khan Khanan), and was engaged in praying for (the welfare of) his ex- patron. He breathed his last at Kashan. So long as he was alive, he always prayed for the Khan Khanan.

4. Shuja‘a -He belonged to Shiraz, He wrote very fine Naskh and Thulth hands, and was the master of his age in that art. At the time when this Commander-in-Chief was engaged in the conquest of Sind, he came from Shiraz to India, in 999 A.H., in company of Aqa Muhammad Shirazi, (who is at present the Mir Bakshi of this Commander-in-Chief) and of Hafiz Taj Shirazi. He got his appointment at the court on the recommendation of Mawlana Shakibi of Isfahan. Shuja‘a was soon raised to the exalted position of the Superintendent of the library—a library which is the meeting- place of savants, scholars and poets. While in the service, he became such a confidant of the Commander-in-Chief that his associates and companions became jealous of him. He obtained the title of Shuja Bahadur. Now-a-days many talented scholars of this country are convinced of his excellence and ability. So long as he lived in India, he was attached to this Court. He departed to the next world! while still in the service’ of the Khan Khanan. May God pardon his shortcomings!

5. Mawlana Muhammad Baqir – He is the younger brother of Mawlana Maqsood, a mercer of Kashan. In Nastaliq calligraphy he not only excelled all his contemporaries in that noble art, but even surpassed the ‘ancient masters of calligraphy…….. In calligraphy he was a pupil of that ‘skilled Master of the Age’ and the ‘Wonder of the time’ Amir Mu‘iz-ud-Din, the famous penman of Kashaan. In calligraphy he imitated the style of the ancient masters so perfectly that specimens of his penmanship found a place in the Albums of the experts of calligraphy. He was imprisoned for a year by Shah ‘Abbas. When Shah ‘Abbas came from Qazwin to Kashaan, he was released from the prison on the intercession of the writer of these lines. After visiting the Ka‘ba and Najaf, he returned to Kashan.Next, he came to India and entered the service of Ibrahim ‘Adil Shah (987-1085/1579-1626) at Bijapur. As that exalted ruler is keenly interested in Nuskh and Thulth calligraphy, he gave him encouragement and raised his position and status befitting his attainments. He came to ‘Adil Shah in 1006 A.H, and since then, he has been employed there during the last twenty years. In these days, he has, on account of my friendship with him (i.., the writer), joined the band of the panegyrists of this Commander-in-Chief.

WE know so little about the life-history of the artists of the period of Akbar and Jahangir—nay, of the Mughal artists in general—that even a scrap of paper, which may throw light on the biography of these artists, is of value to a student of Mughal art. Writers on Mughal painting have ordinarily made use of only such material as has been available to them in printed Texts and ‘Translations, but, it must be admitted, that there is still a mass of material in Persian manuscripts which, if examined and published, will no doubt throw much light on the subject.

There is another point which also deserves consideration. It has been supposed so long that all the Mughal artists were attached te the court of the Emperor only, but the fact is that some of the Mughal grandees also had well-equipped studios in which talented artists embellished and illuminated for them manuscripts of rare grace and beauty. Among such grandees was the Khan Khanan (Abdur Rahim) the great general of Akbar and a son of the famous Bayram Khan (the Regent), who had gathered round him a galaxy of some of the most talented artists of the age. In our historical works the Khan Khanan appears in the role of a great commander and a capable administrator but, in fact, he was equally great as a poet, a scholar and a connoisseur.

He was a generous patron of savants, poets, painters and penmen. Almost all the great poets of Akbar were formerly attached to his court. In fact, they served their term of apprenticeship under him, ‘before joining the service of the Emperor.

The Khan Khanan’s library has been described as a ‘Wonder of the Age’. It was a meeting-place of the best scholars and men of letters ot the age. His biographer, ‘Abdul Baqi Nahawandi, who has written the excellent Ma’athir-i-Rahimi* (or the history of ‘Abdur Rahim, Khan Khanan), tells us that the Khan Khanan’s library was visited by nearly a hundred scholars daily, who met there *to have their doubts settled, their difficulties solved and their frontier of knowledge enlarged and extended’.

The library was in the charge of a Superintendent, who was himself a scholar, His function was two-fold : first, the custody of the manuscripts and, secondly, the supervision of the work of the calligraphists, painters, gilders and book- binders, who were engaged in copying and illuminating the manuscripts. The Ma’athir gives us the names of five persons who at some time or other, acted as librarians of the Khan Khanan, namely, Shaikh ‘Abdus Salim , Mawlaina Baqi’ , Mir Baqi of Transoxiana , Mawlana Ibrahim and Shujaa , besides Mawlana Kami, Ghani Hamadani and a few others who were also employed there, Besides ancient manuscripts, the library contained a very large collection of autograph copies of the works of contemporary poets. But, alas, none of those autograph copies is known to exist today; and, of the older manuscripts, only a dozen have been traced so far.’ All these copies are the finest specimens of the penman’s and the illuminator’s art and some even contain excellent miniatures in the finest Persian and Mughal styles. The interest which the Khan Khanan took in the manuscripts of his library is proved by the fact that all the extant copies of his library bear his autograph notes also. I may mention here, in passing, that a beautiful copy of the Tadhkirat-ul Awliya, or the ‘Memoirs of the Saints’, which formerly belonged to the library of the Khan Khanan and bears his autograph note on the fly-leaf, has recently been added to my humble collection of Persian manuscripts.

I have already said that the Khan Khanan was a very good connoisseur. An instance only will prove my point. The author of Kalimat-ush-Shu‘ara narrates the following story of a painter who came to the Khan Khindan, with a picture and received a reward of five thousand rupees from him. He says :—“ When the Khan Khanan was going to the court of the Emperor, a painter came to him and handed over to him one of his pictures. The scene depicted therein was of a lady who was taking her bath and that a maid-servant was rubbing the sole of her foot with a pumice-stone. The Khan Khanan looked at the picture for a moment and then, putting it in his palanquin went away to pay homage to the Emperor. When he returned, the painter re-appeared. He ordered that a sum of rupees five thousand be paid to him. ‘The painter said, My picture is hardly worth more than five rupees, but there is one artistic skill which I have employed in it. If your Honour has marked that, then I shall be glad to accept your reward, for then I shall have the satisfaction that your Honour has really appreciated my work’, The Khan Khanan said, ‘ Your skill lies in that you have expressed in the lady’s face the feeling which is produced by the rubbing of the sole with a pumice-stone’. The painter was much delighted and he went round the palki of that connoisseur.”

This much for painting. The interest which the Khan Khanan took in calligraphy may be proved from the following two instances. When ‘Abdul Baqi Nahawandi first came to his court and presented to him a ‘ Poem’, which was transcribed by the celebrated calligraphist, Mir Imad of Qazwin, the Khan Khanan was so pleased with him that he at once appointed him to a high post and later commissioned him to compile the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi.

Again, when Khwaja Mohammad of Gilan sent to the Khan Khanan a Persian Poem, which was copied by the well-known calligraphist Amir Mu‘izzuddin Muhammad of Kashan, he sent him a lac of rupees.

The author of the Ma’a hir-ul-Umara has truly re-marked that ‘the Khan Khanan’s court, which was the centre of the ‘ masters’ of all branches of art and letters, was reminiscent of the days of Sultan Husain Mirza and Mir Ali Shir of Herat. Like these two great bibliophiles —probably the greatest that Persia has ever known—the Khan Khanan also had (as appears from the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi), a regular staff of painters, gilders, illuminators and calligraphists. The Ma’athir gives us the names of five painters, two gilders and illuminators and three calligraphists only but, besides them, there must have been many more artists of lesser fame who were also engaged in illustrating and illuminating the manuscripts of the Khan Khanan.

Among the painters, we get the names of Miyan Nadim, Bahbood, Mushfiq, Madhu and Ibrahim; and among the gilders and illuminators we find Mulla Muhammed Amin and Mulla Muhammad Husain; and among the calligraphists we have Mulla Abdur Rahim, Ambarin Qalam, Mulla Muhammad Mu’min, Mawliné Muhammad Darwish and Mulla Muhammad Baqir. The only specimen of the art of some of the above-named painters is in a copy of the Khamsa, or the ‘Five Poems’, of Amir Khusraw of Delhi, which is preserved in the Staasbibliothec, Berlin (MS. Orient. Fol. 1278). Dr. Goetz, who has examined the manuscript, says, “According to an extensive note inserted in 1617 by the Khan Khanan ‘Abdur Rahim Khan (one of the highest grandees of the Emperor Akbar and son of his guardian Bairam Khan) it was purchased by the latter in Gujarat, and is said to have been master- piece jointly executed by the calligrapher Sultan ‘Ali and the most renowned of Muslim painters, Bahzad. Its miniatures which are framed by charming illuminated borders, are, nevertheless, actually signed by three less known, painters of Akbar’s reign, Qasim, Nadim and Mish Kish.

Originally it had no illustrations; subsequently many miniatures. Of very different origin were pasted over the text and were adapted to its size by various disfiguring additions. Among these, however, is a quantity of bad miniatures, but nevertheless some very fine paintings of the Akbari School.

Of the above three painters, Nadim and Mushfiq (and not Mish Kish, as stated by Dr. Goetz) are mentioned in the Ma’athir ; while the third, Qasim is not referred to in the book. ‘There is, however, one Muhammad Qasim whose illustrations can be seen in the British Museum copy of the Shahnama. He may be identical with the aforesaid Qasim who illustrated the Khamsa for the Khan Khanan but, unless further evidence is forthcoming, no final decision can be made. It is also difficult to identify the Madhu of the Ma’athir with the Madhu mentioned by Abul Fazl in the ‘A’in, as has been done by Blochmann,!

Martin and Brown.The last named author mentions three Madhus ‘of Akbar’s period: Madhu Khan azaad, Madhu Kalan (or senior) and Madhu Khurd (or Junior). He has identified the first, ie., Madhu Khanazaad, with the Madhu of the Ma’athir. But I fear he has overlooked the fact that Madhu Khan azaad’s pictures are to be found in the British Museum copy of the Darabnama, which, as he himself says, was completed about 1575, while the Madhu of the Ma’athir was still working in the library of the Khan Khanan in 1617 A.D. Did he really resign his service under the Emperor and join that of the Khan Khanan? Probably not, for had this been a fact the author of the Ma’athir must have referred to this in his book. In view of these considerations, I am inclined to keep his identity separate from that of the Madhu of the A’in and also from the two other Madhus whose names appear in the “ Akbar Manuscripts ”’.

Let me here refer to the Khan Khanan’s interest in ‘paper’. It is on record that he was keenly interested in ‘Aks’ (or tracing) paper and that Mulla Muhammad Amin and Mulla Muhammad Husain invented ‘Aks paper of seven colours’. ‘Abri’ paper was also invented under his patronage.

Now, I append an English translation of the notices of painters, gilders and calligraphists, which are given in the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi. I should like to make it clear, however, that my translation is not always literal as, in that case, some of the passages would have hardly been intelligible to the English reader. ’

1. Miyan Nadim – He was one of the Khasa Khail and a slave of this Commander-in-Chief. He was the brother of Miyan Fahim‘ whose account we have already given. The service which the latter rendered to India, in general, and to the Khan Khanan, in particular, is too well-known to need repetition here, He (i.e., Nadim) was so skilled in drawing and painting that, since the days of Mani and Bahzad, none has been born who can rival him. He acquired this proficiency in the library, and in the service, of this Commander-in-Chief. In fact, the exalted, Khan Khanan himself instructed and raised him to this high level. Thus, under the training of the Khan Khanan, he became peerless master in his art. He breathed his last in the service of his master. He led a comfortable and care-free life, as he was handsomely paid by the Khan Khanan.

2. Bahbood – He was a Khasa Khail of the Khan Khanan. Formerly he was a slave of Mirza Baqir, the illustrious son of Qiblat-ul-Kutub, Mir ‘Ali, the famous calligraphist. The aforesaid Mirza (Baqir) was skilled in calligraphy and wrote such beautiful Nastaliq, alter the style of his father, that his writings find a place in the Albums of the connoisseurs, and excite much admiration. When he came to India and joined the service of the Khan Khanan, he handed over Bahbood, who is unrivalled in painting and Nastaliq calligraphy, to the Khan Khanan. He is still alive and passes his time in the Library. He is engaged in adorning, embellishing and copying the manuscripts of the Khan Khanan. In fact, peerless in these two arts, in his age. The writer has seen specimens of his calligraphy and paintings and is of opinion that undoubtedly he is a‘ Marvel of the Age ’.

3. Mawlani Mushfiq -He is also one of the Khasa Khails. He is an unrivaled painter of his age. He has passed his life, from an early age down to the present day, in the library (of the Khan Khanan). Here, he acquired proficiency and obtained this exalted position under the care and in the training of this Chief. He has no rival or equal (in his art), He leads a life of comfort, under the patronage of the Khan Khanan. He works in the library.

4. Madhu– He is a Hindu painter. In portraiture, drawing, painting and arabesque-design (tarrahi) he is the Mani and the Bahzad of his age. He has illustrated most of the manuscripts of this court; he has drawn several court-scenes and painted excellent miniatures. He is employed in the library and holds, besides an allowance, Jagirs also. The writer has met him and has also seen his pictures in the presence of this Commander-in-Chief. Verily, he is peerless (in his art).

5. Mawhina Ibrahim, Naqqash – He was unrivaled in calligraphy, gilding, book-binding and was skilled as engraver on precious stones. He was much skilled in various arts, and was proficient and unsurpassed in other branches as well. He met the Commander-in-Chief at Ahmad Nagar, in the Deccan, and entered his service there; He held the post of a librarian for a number of years. It may be said, without the least exaggeration, that each one of his excellence would have become an embellishment and an adornment for the people of the world, At times, he composed verses also. He had a good aptitude for poetry and was unrivaled among the exponents of this art in India. For reasons which are not known to the writer, he was deprived of the honor of the service of the Khan Khanan. He traveled, during the remaining period of his life, throughout India, in search of a master and patron like the Khan Khanan, but he did not get any. He was always sorry, and regretted his mistake. At last the messenger of Death rolled the carpet of his existence (i.e., he died)

Gilders.and Calligraphers.

1. Mulla Muhammad Amin, the jadwal- maker. He is one of the famous gilders of Khurasan, For a long time, he was employed in the library attached to the shrine of Imam Raza, the eighth Imam, at Mashhad, and was engaged in embellishing the manuscripts of that exalted shrine, When the Uzbeqs became masters of Khurasan and they plundered, pillaged and destroyed many of its districts, and more particularly Mashhad, the aforesaid Mawlana came, with his sons and grandsons, to India. He took shelter in the library of the Commander- in-Chief and here he removed from his face—-through the kindness of the Khan Khanan—the dust of the woes and the sufferings of Khurasan. He was appointed on a salary of Rs. 4,000 and his sons also were appointed on big’ salaries. He was unrivaled in his age in gilding, jadwal-work and ‘Aks (i.e., tracing) work. He has adorned and embellished most of the manuscripts of this library. As the Khan Khanan was particularly interested in ‘Aks’ paper, he invented ‘Aks’ paper of seven colors. He made such improvements in ‘Aks’ that none of the ancient or modern masters can even approach him. He obtained so many favors and rewards from his master, during his long service at his court, that it is hardly possible to enumerate them all, He had a fine taste for poetry. He is the inventor of Abri paper also.

2, Mulla Muhammad Husain of Herat, was the brother of Mulla Muhammad Amin. He was an excellent sahhaf, or book-binder. In ‘Aks work, he even excelled Mulla Muhammad Amin. He has been serving in this library since thirty-five years. No one has surpassed’ him in Dirham burd’ Aks work of seven colors, he has no peer in this art, Besides his salary, he has been given jagir also. Today, he is the pivot of the library.

1. Mulla ‘Abdur Rahim, Ambarin Qalam of Heraat. He is one of the celebrated calligraphists of the age, and writes a very fine Nastaliq hand. In his early age when he came from Khurasan to India, he attached himself to the court of this Commander-in-Chief. He made such improvement in calligraphy, under the able guidance of his master, that the fame of his penmanship spread all over India. Most of the manuscripts in the Sarkaar (of the Khan Khanan) were in the handwriting of this ‘Wonder of the Age’, He, remained in the service of the Khan Khanan for a number of years and was always engaged in acquiring proficiency (in his art). The Khan Khanan, then, presented him before the Vicegerent of God (i.e., Emperor Akbar) and had him appointed in the Royal Court. At present no one excels him, except Mulla Muhammad Husain of Kashmir. He received many favours and rewards from the Khan Khanan, during his service under him, and to-day also he prays for his (i.e.,the Khan Khanan’s) good fortune and prosperity.

2. Mulla Muhammad Mu’min . He is the brother of Mulla Muhammad Husain of Heraat. These two brothers have not, since their arrival in India, gone to any other court or library, except that of this Commander-in-Chief. He wrote very beautiful Nastaliq. He was the master of his age in Jali (bold) calligraphy. There are many bulky volumes in this library which have been transcribed by him. He received an allowance befitting his status. So long as he was alive, he has engaged in the service of the Commander-in-Chief and left it only when he passed away from this transitory world.

3. Mawlina Darwish of Turbat. He was the illustrious son of Mulla ‘Abdus Samad of Turbat. He is known as Darwish “Abdus Samad. He wrote a beautiful Taliq hand. In fact, he had acquired such proficiency in his art that connoisseurs placed the specimens of his calligraphy in their Albums, mistaking them to be the work of the celebrated Mulla Darwish. The Mulla worked for a long time as a scribe in the Darul Insha of the Eighth Imam at Mashhad. But the desire of kissing the threshold of this Commander-in-Chief, brought him to India. He acted as a Munshi in this Court, for a number of years. He combined in him the qualities of a good penman with that of a man of refined taste. So long as was in the service of the Khan Khanan, he was always honoured with rewards, but, when he became old and infirm, he sought the permission of the Commander-in- Chief and retired to Kashan—the abode of the Faithful. But he left his son, Khwaja Muhammad Qasim, at the Court, He was employed on the same work.

The writer met the Mawlana at Kashan, where he was living in comfort, with the money which he had revived from this Ka‘ba of generosity (i.e., the Khan Khanan), and was engaged in praying for (the welfare of) his ex- patron. He breathed his last at Kashan. So long as he was alive, he always prayed for the Khan Khanan.

4. Shuja‘a -He belonged to Shiraz, He wrote very fine Naskh and Thulth hands, and was the master of his age in that art. At the time when this Commander-in-Chief was engaged in the conquest of Sind, he came from Shiraz to India, in 999 A.H., in company of Aqa Muhammad Shirazi, (who is at present the Mir Bakshi of this Commander-in-Chief) and of Hafiz Taj Shirazi. He got his appointment at the court on the recommendation of Mawlana Shakibi of Isfahan. Shuja‘a was soon raised to the exalted position of the Superintendent of the library—a library which is the meeting- place of savants, scholars and poets. While in the service, he became such a confidant of the Commander-in-Chief that his associates and companions became jealous of him. He obtained the title of Shuja Bahadur. Now-a-days many talented scholars of this country are convinced of his excellence and ability. So long as he lived in India, he was attached to this Court. He departed to the next world! while still in the service’ of the Khan Khanan. May God pardon his shortcomings!

5. Mawlana Muhammad Baqir – He is the younger brother of Mawlana Maqsood, a mercer of Kashan. In Nastaliq calligraphy he not only excelled all his contemporaries in that noble art, but even surpassed the ‘ancient masters of calligraphy…….. In calligraphy he was a pupil of that ‘skilled Master of the Age’ and the ‘Wonder of the time’ Amir Mu‘iz-ud-Din, the famous penman of Kashaan. In calligraphy he imitated the style of the ancient masters so perfectly that specimens of his penmanship found a place in the Albums of the experts of calligraphy. He was imprisoned for a year by Shah ‘Abbas. When Shah ‘Abbas came from Qazwin to Kashaan, he was released from the prison on the intercession of the writer of these lines. After visiting the Ka‘ba and Najaf, he returned to Kashan.Next, he came to India and entered the service of Ibrahim ‘Adil Shah (987-1085/1579-1626) at Bijapur. As that exalted ruler is keenly interested in Nuskh and Thulth calligraphy, he gave him encouragement and raised his position and status befitting his attainments. He came to ‘Adil Shah in 1006 A.H, and since then, he has been employed there during the last twenty years. In these days, he has, on account of my friendship with him (i.., the writer), joined the band of the panegyrists of this Commander-in-Chief.